The patient was first diagnosed with VWD at age of 9 months, when she presented to her local hospital with prolonged bleeding from a lip wound after a fall. She was found to have prolonged APTT and VWD was diagnosed. Bleeding stopped following transfusion of learn more factor concentrate and tranexamic acid (TA). The patient’s parents are first cousins. She has two sisters, one is 2 years older and the other sister is 3 years younger than her. Both her parents and her older sister were subsequently diagnosed with type 1 VWD. She had very few bleeding episodes requiring treatment with factor concentrate as a young child until age 5,

when multiple dental caries caused abscess in her gums leading to the extraction of ten teeth. She had prolonged bleeding after tooth extractions resulting in severe anaemia (Hb 7.1 g dL−1). Thus, she was commenced on regular

factor replacement therapy, TA 250 mg qds and TA mouthwash until the completion of her dental treatment. At age of 6 years, she had an episode of severe epistaxis resulting in haematamesis and was treated with factor concentrate and TA administration. The bleeding continued despite treatment, Therefore, nose pack, intravenous desmopressin (DDAVP, 0.3 mcg kg−1) and a pool of platelets were administered. The patient’s haemoglobin dropped to 5.3 g dL−1. She was transfused Selleck FDA-approved Drug Library 3 units of packed red cells and had nasal cauterization with silver nitrate under general anaesthesia. The patient moved to Dubai with her family. At age of 9, during a visit to UK, she attended the haemophilia centre for review. Discussion took place with her and her parents regarding the onset of menstruation and its management. this website They were advised this would definitely

include the use of factor concentrate. Lack of this form of treatment outside UK was also discussed. The patient returned to UK permanently at age of 14 and presented to our centre. She reported having an emergency laparoscopy for acute abdominal pain at age of 12. Consequently, she underwent right ovarian cystectomy and appendicectomy under cover of cryoprecipitate. The operating surgeon reported to the patient and her family a right ovarian cyst that was removed and a normal left ovary, but no mention on the status of the uterus and the tubes. She had not had any period, but reported regular monthly pain lasting 2–3 days. Her secondary sexual characteristics were compatible with her age. Abdominal and pelvic ultrasound was performed and revealed multiple haemorrhagic bilateral ovarian cysts, but uterus could not be seen. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was then arranged and reported absent uterine and cervical tissues with no recognizable upper vaginal tissues. There were also no vaginal tissues seen between the urethra and rectum on axial views at the level of symphysis pubis, indicating absence of the mid third of vagina as well.

, Gilead, Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Merck & Co., Idenix, Janssen, Roche Pharma AG, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Christophe Hezode – Speaking and Teaching: Roche, BMS, MSD, Janssen, abb-vie, Gilead Mitchell BTK inhibition L. Shiffman – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Merck, Gilead, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Abbvie, Janssen;

Consulting: Roche/ Genentech, Gen-Probe; Grant/Research Support: Merck, Gilead, Boehring-er-Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, GSK, Abbvie, Beckman-Coulter, Achillion, Lumena, Intercept, Novarit, Gen-Probe; Speaking and Teaching: Roche/Genen-tech, Merck, Gilead, GSK, Janssen, Bayer Stanislas Pol – Board Membership: Sanofi, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Tibotec Janssen Cilag, Gilead, Glaxo Smith Kline, Roche, MSD, Novartis; Grant/Research Support: Glaxo Smith Kline, Gilead, Roche, MSD; Speaking and Teaching: Sanofi, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, Tibotec Janssen Cilag, Gilead, Glaxo Smith Kline, Roche, MSD, Novartis Marina Berenguer – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Novartis, Astellas, Janssen, BMS Michael W. Fried – Consulting: Roche/Genentech, Janssen, Vertex, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, AbbVie, Merck, GlaxoSmithKline, Gilead; Grant/Research Support: Roche/Genentech, Janssen, Vertex, Merck, Bristol Myers Squibb, AbbVie, NSC 683864 purchase Merck, Gilead Kosh Agarwal -

Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Gilead, Novartis, Abbott; Grant/Research find more Support: Roche, MSD; Speaking and Teaching: BMS, Astellas, Janssen Kris V. Kowdley – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: AbbVie, Gilead, Merck, Novartis, Trio Health,

Boeringer Ingelheim, Ikaria, Janssen; Grant/Research Support: AbbVie, Beckman, Boeringer Ingelheim, BMS, Gilead Sciences, Ikaria, Janssen, Merck, Mochida, Vertex Sandra S. Lovell – Employment: AbbVie Manal Abunimeh – Employment: AbbVie Barbara H. McGovern – Employment: AbbVie The following people have nothing to disclose: Roger Trinh, Antonio Craxi “
“Over the last decade a group of “autoinflammatory disorders” has emerged that reflects genetic defects in the innate immune system leading to spontaneous inflammation. A subgroup of these disorders, the “hereditary recurrent fevers,” ischaracterized by episodes of fevers, serositis, myalgia, arthralgia, rashes, and lymphadenopathy. In this chapter familial Mediterranean fever, TNF receptor-associated periodic syndrome and hyperimmunoglobulinemia D syndrome will be discussed, as these may present to the gastroenterologist. Recognition of clinical presentation will help diagnose such patients and allow correct treatment with potential to reduce risk of amyloidosis. “
“Aim:  To elucidate the etiologic factors and features of liver injury in patients with acute ischemic brain stroke who were treated with edaravone and reported by their attending physicians to have developed serious liver injury.

These facts suggest that antiviral responses against the interferon therapy are associated with those in B cells Z-VAD-FMK solubility dmso of CH-C patients. The objective of this study is to evaluate the antiviral response in B cells of CH-C patients during the TVR therapy and its correlation with expression of interferon stimulated genes (ISGs) in B cells. Methods: (Study I) Sixty nine patients with CH-C before the antiviral therapy and 26 healthy volunteers were enrolled. The PBMC were isolated from 30 ml of whole blood, subsequently B cells were isolated. The mRNA expression of ISGs (Mx1, OAS1,

OAS2, ISGF3,and IFITM) in B cells was analyzed by the realtime RT-PCR. (Study II) Seventeen patients with CH-C, who were treated with the TVR therapy under the standard protocol [SVR: 15, relapser: selleck chemicals 2], were enrolled. Total RNA was isolated from B and non-B cells at 4 time-points during the therapy (before, 1,16 weeks after the beginning, and 8 weeks after the end of therapy) and then determined HCV RNA titers and expression levels of the ISGs mRNA. Result: All ISGs mRNA in B cells of CH-C patients was expressed higher than those in healthy subjects, indicating that antiviral

response in B cells of CH-C patients was up-regulated even before therapy. At one week after the beginning of therapy, HCV RNA in sera was all detectable, while HCV RNA in B cells was check details all undetectable. This result speculates that antiviral response in B cells is completed at this point. The mRNA expression of all the ISG was increased at one week after the beginning of therapy [ISG mRNA ratio (before/one week); Mx1: 2.9±0.4, OAS1: 2.2±0.4, OAS2: 2.4±0.6, ISGF3: 1.5±0.2, IFITM: 3.3±0.3]. These levels were maintained at 16 weeks and decreased to the same levels as before therapy at 8 weeks after the end of therapy. The ISGs mRNA expression of one patient who was a relapser (therapy completed) showed no

increase through the therapy. Conclusion: The TVR therapy leads B cells to the strong antiviral circumstance soon after the therapy. It is thought that both direct antiviral effects of TVR and high levels of ISGs enable rapid disappearance of HCV from B cells in a coordinated manner. Early response of ISGs mRNA and HCV RNA levels in B cells at one week might be predictive factors for outcome of the therapy. Disclosures: Michio Imawari – Advisory Committees or Review Panels: Shionogi Pharmaceutical Co.; Consulting: Ajinomoto; Speaking and Teaching: Tanabe Mitsubishi Pharmaceutical Co., Yansen Pharma, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharmaceutical Co., Taisho Toyama Pharmaceutical Co., Tohre, Meiji Seika Pharma, GSK, MSD, Dai-ichi Sankyo, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Takeda Pharmaceutical Co.

Patients were operated on by the same surgeon and were managed by the same haemophilia treatment centre. Forty procedures (25 minor and 15 major) were conducted in 18 patients. Twenty-one minor

cases were covered using rFVIIa, three with pd-PCC, and one with pd-APCC; all major cases were covered using rFVIIa. Bleeding was no greater than expected compared with a non-haemophilic population in all 25 minor procedures. In the major procedure group, there was no excessive bleeding in 40% of cases (6/15) and bleeding completely stopped in response to rFVIIa. For the remaining nine cases, bleeding response to rFVIIa was described as ‘markedly decreased’ or ‘decreased’ in 4/15 cases and ‘unchanged’ in 5/15 cases. Overall, efficacy of rFVIIa, based on final patient outcome, was 85%. One death occurred as a result of sepsis secondary NVP-LDE225 to necrotizing fasciitis. Good control of haemostasis can be achieved with bypassing

agents in haemophilia patients with inhibitors undergoing minor EOS; rFVIIa was used as an effective bypassing agent, enabling EOS in patients undergoing minor and major procedures. “
“Summary.  Haemophilia has been recognized as the most severe among the inherited disorders of blood coagulation since the beginning of the first millennium. Joint damage is the hallmark AZD1208 price of the disease. Despite its frequency and severity, the pathobiology of blood-induced joint disease remains obscure. Although bleeding into the joint is the ultimate provocation, the stimulus within the blood inciting the process and the mechanisms by which bleeding into a joint results in synovial inflammation (synovitis) and cartilage and bone destruction (arthropathy) is unknown. Clues

from careful observation of patient material, supplemented with data from animal models of joint disease provide some selleck compound clues as to the pathogenesis of the process. Among the questions that remain to be answered are the following: (i) What underlies the phenotypic variability in bleeding patterns of patients with severe disease and the development of arthropathy in some but not all patients with joint bleeding? (ii) What is the molecular basis underlying the variability? (iii) Are there strategies that can be developed to counter the deleterious effects of joint bleeding and prevent blood-induced joint disease? Understanding the key elements, genetic and/or environmental, that are necessary for the development of synovitis and arthropathy may lead to rational design of therapy for the targeted prevention and treatment of blood-induced joint disease. “
“Summary.  Chronic HCV infection continues to be of significant clinical importance in patients with hereditary bleeding disorders. This guideline provides information on the recent advances in the investigation and treatment of HCV infection and gives GRADE system based recommendations on the management of the infection in this patient group.

We found that knockdown of FoxC1 reduced the expression of a number of metastasis-related genes. Among these genes, NEDD9 was the most down-regulated upon FoxC1 knockdown. Using serial deletion, site-directed mutagenesis, and ChIP, we showed that NEDD9 is a direct transcriptional target of FoxC1. Inhibition

of NEDD9 expression markedly decreased FoxC1-mediated HCC AZD6244 metastasis. Furthermore, FoxC1 expression was positively correlated with NEDD9 expression, and the coexpression of these genes was associated with poor prognosis in human HCC patients. Thus, FoxC1 promoted HCC metastasis by up-regulating NEDD9 expression. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the overexpression of FoxC1 in HCC is a strong indicator of more-aggressive tumors and poor clinical outcome. FoxC1 promotes HCC metastasis through not only the induction of EMT, but also up-regulation of the adhesive molecule, NEDD9. Thus, FoxC1 may be a candidate biomarker for HCC prognosis and a target for new therapies. Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. “
“Pancreatic

duct leaks can occur as a result of both acute and chronic pancreatitis or in the setting of pancreatic trauma. Manifestations Rapamycin chemical structure of leaks include pseudocysts, pancreatic ascites, high amylase pleural effusions, disconnected duct syndrome, and internal and external pancreatic fistulas. Patient presentations are highly variable and range from asymptomatic pancreatic cysts to patients with severe abdominal

pain and sepsis from infected fluid collections. The diagnosis can often be made by high-quality cross-sectional imaging or during endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Because of their complexity, pancreatic leak patients are best managed by a multidisciplinary team comprised of therapeutic endoscopists, interventional radiologists, and surgeons in the field of pancreatic interventions. Minor leaks will often resolve with conservative management while severe leaks will frequently require interventions. Endoscopic treatments for pancreatic duct leaks MCE公司 have replaced surgical interventions in many situations. Interventional radiologists also have the ability to offer therapeutic interventions for many leak patients. The mainstay of endotherapy for pancreatic leaks is transpapillary pancreatic duct stenting with a stent that bridges the leak if possible, but varies based on the manifestation and clinical presentation. Fluid collections that result from leaks, such as pseudocysts, can often be treated by endoscopic transluminal drainage with or without endoscopic ultrasound or by percutaneous drainage. Endoscopic interventions have been shown to be effective and have an acceptable complication rate. Pancreatitis can be caused by multiple different types of insults to the pancreas.

Overall, 704 treatment-naive patients who received one or more doses of boceprevir in SPRINT-2 were eligible for the current analysis. SVR was achieved in 475 boceprevir recipients (67%); 9 and 0 of these patients were missing HCV RNA measurements at weeks 8 and 12, respectively. SVR was not achieved in 229 boceprevir recipients (33%); 23 and 34 were missing HCV RNA measurements at weeks 8 and 12, respectively. After stratification in RESPOND-2, 144 partial responders and 259 relapsers were randomized and treated with one or more doses of the study medication. Overall, 316

treatment-experienced patients who received one or more doses of boceprevir in RESPOND-2 were eligible for this analysis; this number included 111 partial responders and 205 relapsers. SVR was achieved in 202 boceprevir recipients (64%); 5 were missing HCV RNA measurements at week 8. SVR was not achieved DMXAA cell line in 114 boceprevir recipients (36%); 11 were missing HCV RNA measurements at week 8. Figure 1 displays scatter plots of HCV RNA levels in 672 and 670 evaluable boceprevir

recipients at weeks 8 and 12, respectively, from SPRINT-2. The recipients were divided into SVR and non-SVR groups. No absolute threshold could be established at week 8 (after 4 weeks of boceprevir) that would have allowed the early discontinuation of failing therapy in patients without the loss of some SVRs (Table 1). All 65 patients with HCV RNA levels ≥100 IU/mL at week 12 failed to achieve SVR; only 3 of these patients (all of whom had week 12 levels <300 IU/mL) reached undetectable levels by the end of find more treatment but subsequently

relapsed. Viral variants first identified after week 12 were found in 36 of the 49 patients (73%) with resistance data who would have stopped therapy at week 12 with the ≥100 IU/mL rule. In 49 of the 79 patients with detectable HCV RNA levels (<100 IU/mL) at week 12, HCV RNA became undetectable between weeks 12 and 24. Ultimately, 21 of these 49 patients achieved SVR. These data indicate that a stopping rule with an HCV RNA cutoff of ≥100 IU/mL at week 12 would have allowed the early discontinuation of failing therapy in 65 of 195 possible failures (sensitivity = 33%) without sacrificing 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 a single SVR among 475 successes (specificity = 100%). A more stringent stopping rule of detectable HCV RNA at week 12 would have sacrificed 21 SVRs. A less stringent stopping rule at week 12 (≥1000 IU/mL) would also have prevented the premature discontinuation of therapy but would have enabled appropriate discontinuation in only 43 patients. Similar results were found with the week 16 stopping rules (Supporting Table 1). In contrast to an absolute HCV RNA threshold level, the degree of the decline from the baseline HCV RNA level was generally a less discriminative predictor of outcomes at most time points. Notably, 24 of 83 patients (29%) with a <0.

7). Finally, our results show the importance of the Mdm2-NEDD8 network in Selleck PD0325901 HuR overexpression during malignant transformation, supporting the role of HuR in tumorigenesis. The potential of antitumor activity for the NEDD8-activating enzyme inhibitor, MLN4924, has been shown in human colon and lung tumor xenograft models in immunocompromised mice.34 Taken together, HuR is a new target for NEDDylation, and NEDD-dependent regulation plays a crucial role as a principal conductor of a new regulatory mechanism. Our findings might represent a useful tool to uncover new therapeutic strategies for HCC and

colon cancer. In closing, our results show that NEDDylation is a novel mechanism for HuR regulation, which broadly reveals its influence on the cellular post-transcriptional regulatory machinery. The authors particularly acknowledge the patients enrolled in this study for their participation

and the Basque Biobank for Research-OEHUN for its collaboration in providing the human samples and the clinical information used in this project with appropriate ethics approval. The authors are grateful to Dr. Juan Burgos Selleck CX-4945 for selection of the human samples and Dr. Félix Royo for helping with statistical analysis. Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. “
“As the result of an increasing incidence and a prevalent therapy resistance medchemexpress of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), there is a strong need for novel strategies to enhance treatment responses in HCC. Tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has been proposed as a promising anticancer drug because it can selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells, but not in healthy cells. Nevertheless, most tumor cells show TRAIL resistance, emphasizing the requirement for apoptosis-sensitizing agents and TRAIL molecules with improved tumor specificity. In this study, we employed a recombinant TRAIL molecule, in which three TRAIL protomers were expressed as a single polypeptide chain (scTRAIL), and a novel TRAIL variant, in which scTRAIL was additionally fused to an antibody fragment recognizing epidermal growth

factor receptor (EGFR) to improve its HCC-targeting properties. We analyzed the proapoptotic effects of both TRAIL versions in combination with the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (BZB) in hepatoma cells and primary human hepatocytes as well as in intact explants from HCC and healthy liver tissue. We demonstrate that EGFR-targeted TRAIL in combination with BZB induced significantly higher caspase activation and cell death in hepatoma cells, but not in primary hepatocytes. Importantly, when incubated with fresh liver explants, the combination of EGFR-targeted TRAIL and BZB displayed selective cytotoxicity for HCC, but not for tumor-free liver tissue, which could even be verified in liver explants from the same individuals.

91% (15 cases). Many had developed complications including formation of fistulas (19 cases, 40.43%) and strictures (39 cases, 40.43%), among which 23 cases developed intestinal obstructioneventually (48.94%). Disease activity was classified as mild (13 cases, 27.66%), moderate (19 cases, 40.43%) and severe (15 cases,

31.92%). And for the patients with severe selleck compound disease, 5 had small intestine involved (33.33%), 9 had colon involved (60%) and 1 had disease confined to rectum. Patients were induced into remission with 5-aminosalicylicacid compounds, corticosteroid and immunosuppressant alone or combined. Few cases were induced with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressantonly (4 cases/6.38%, 3 cases/8.5%). Among the 21 cases using only corticosteroid, 17 became steroid dependent

and 4 got no response to it. 11 cases were induced with combined with corticosteroid combined with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressant. Apart from the traditional therapies above, 10 patients had received infliximab or adalimumab, Seliciclib nmr and 8 of them (80%) had satisfactory outcome. Also there were 12 patients (25.53%) required surgery to get symptoms relieved. 12 achieved clinical remission, of whom 1 achieved mucosal healing, and 21 had clinical response. 1 endured no difference after treatment and 2 deteriorated. Conclusion: Lesions are most common seen in small intestines. Intestinal stricture medchemexpress caused by bowel wall thickening is one of the

important feature of CD. Patients with lesions in colon seem to suffer more severe disease. First line therapy for Chinese patients with mild to moderate disease is still controversial. The efficacy of corticosteroid alone is doubtful, but a combination with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressant might induce remission in some patients. Infliximab and adalimumab are comparatively effective in the treatment of Chinese CD patients. Key Word(s): 1. Crohn’s disease; 2. treatment; 3. manifestation; Presenting Author: XIANG ZHAN Additional Authors: NAIZHONG HU Corresponding Author: NAIZHONG HU Affiliations: the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University Objective: 1. To investigate the clinical features of Severe Ulcerative Colitis SUC, forecast adverse outcomes and improve the initiative of clinic treatment; 2. To study the clinical high risk factors of severe hormone refractory ulcerative colitis UC; 3. To follow up the outcomes and operation condition for the replace treatment of severe hormone UC patients, and investigate the clinical high risk factors of excision. Methods: We need to choose 112 cases which is suitable of SUC diagnostic criteria from 309 cases that the Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University received from January 2001 to December 2012, and according to the criteria of diagnosis, remove and rejection, 106 cases of SUC patients has been put into the study finally. 1.

91% (15 cases). Many had developed complications including formation of fistulas (19 cases, 40.43%) and strictures (39 cases, 40.43%), among which 23 cases developed intestinal obstructioneventually (48.94%). Disease activity was classified as mild (13 cases, 27.66%), moderate (19 cases, 40.43%) and severe (15 cases,

31.92%). And for the patients with severe EPZ-6438 price disease, 5 had small intestine involved (33.33%), 9 had colon involved (60%) and 1 had disease confined to rectum. Patients were induced into remission with 5-aminosalicylicacid compounds, corticosteroid and immunosuppressant alone or combined. Few cases were induced with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressantonly (4 cases/6.38%, 3 cases/8.5%). Among the 21 cases using only corticosteroid, 17 became steroid dependent

and 4 got no response to it. 11 cases were induced with combined with corticosteroid combined with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressant. Apart from the traditional therapies above, 10 patients had received infliximab or adalimumab, Alvelestat ic50 and 8 of them (80%) had satisfactory outcome. Also there were 12 patients (25.53%) required surgery to get symptoms relieved. 12 achieved clinical remission, of whom 1 achieved mucosal healing, and 21 had clinical response. 1 endured no difference after treatment and 2 deteriorated. Conclusion: Lesions are most common seen in small intestines. Intestinal stricture MCE公司 caused by bowel wall thickening is one of the

important feature of CD. Patients with lesions in colon seem to suffer more severe disease. First line therapy for Chinese patients with mild to moderate disease is still controversial. The efficacy of corticosteroid alone is doubtful, but a combination with 5-amino salicylic acid compounds or immunosuppressant might induce remission in some patients. Infliximab and adalimumab are comparatively effective in the treatment of Chinese CD patients. Key Word(s): 1. Crohn’s disease; 2. treatment; 3. manifestation; Presenting Author: XIANG ZHAN Additional Authors: NAIZHONG HU Corresponding Author: NAIZHONG HU Affiliations: the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University Objective: 1. To investigate the clinical features of Severe Ulcerative Colitis SUC, forecast adverse outcomes and improve the initiative of clinic treatment; 2. To study the clinical high risk factors of severe hormone refractory ulcerative colitis UC; 3. To follow up the outcomes and operation condition for the replace treatment of severe hormone UC patients, and investigate the clinical high risk factors of excision. Methods: We need to choose 112 cases which is suitable of SUC diagnostic criteria from 309 cases that the Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University received from January 2001 to December 2012, and according to the criteria of diagnosis, remove and rejection, 106 cases of SUC patients has been put into the study finally. 1.

The approach was male oriented, as was Trivers’ (1972), largely because it was assumed that selection operated more intensely on males than females. It was a case of quantity versus quality: a promiscuous male could leave more descendants, whereas a promiscuous female could leave only better quality offspring. It was assumed that regardless of how many partners a female had, the number of offspring she produced would not change. The second reason for focusing on males was

that male adaptations, whether they were behavioural, anatomical or physiological, were more obvious and more easily studied than female adaptations. There may also have been a cultural bias to focus more on males. When Trivers (1972) reported LY2109761 supplier Bateman’s (1948) ground-breaking work and

used it to develop his theory of sexual selection in INCB024360 mw the late 1960s and the early 1970s, he presented only part of Bateman’s results, ignoring those that indicated that females might benefit from copulating with multiple partners (see Arnold & Duvall 1994). When, in 2001, I quizzed Trivers about why he had done this, he told me unashamedly that it was pure bias. Trivers (1972) described Bateman’s study in the following terms. Using genetic markers, Bateman (1948) measured the reproductive success of male and female fruitflies Drosophila melanogaster. For a male, the more females he copulated with, the more offspring he fathered (as a result of sperm competition), but for females, reproductive success did not change

after she had copulated with one male regardless of how many other copulation partners she had had. In other words, females needed to copulate only once to fertilize all their eggs, but males benefited from being promiscuous. However, Trivers did not reveal that part way through his experiments, Bateman had been forced to change 上海皓元 the larval growth medium. Like a good scientist, Bateman kept the results separate, and those obtained when food was limiting for the fly larva actually showed that females did benefit, albeit not as much as males, from copulating with more than one partner. Trivers simply ignored those results. Interestingly, it was not until Arnold & Duvall (1994) went back and re-read Bateman’s study that they realized what Trivers had done. Trivers (2002) himself has described how his 1972 paper came about, and more recently, Bateman’s (1948) study has been reappraised (Snyder & Gowaty, 2007). It was not until the 1980s that the idea that females might benefit from promiscuity came back on the agenda. In some ways, it may have been fortunate that Trivers and Parker first focused primarily on males because it meant that behavioural ecologists interested in post-copulatory sexual selection could investigate male function without the additional complexity of female biology.