The results showed no significant changes of the donor nerve and muscle

in Group B. Nerve regeneration was found in the peroneal nerve, and myelinated fiber number was significantly decreased when compared to the nerve with ETE. In Group C, the myelinated axon number in the peroneal nerve was equivalent to the level in ETE repair. However, function and structure of the donor nerve and muscle were significantly impaired in the early postoperative period. Nonetheless, full recovery was observed 24 weeks after surgery. Both ETS with epineurial window and 40% donor nerve neurectomy showed reinnervation of the recipient nerve without structural and functional changes of the donor system in a long-term follow-up. Partial neurectomy may promote recipient nerve regeneration, but at the cost of donor neuromuscular compromises in the early postoperative period. This study provides long-term evidence for learn more further investigation of ETS in peripheral nerve repair and in babysitter procedures. © 2013 Wiley ITF2357 Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 34:136–144, 2014. “
“Objectives: To report the wide clinical experience and the research studies in the microsurgical treatment of peripheral lymphedema. Methods: More than 1800 patients with peripheral lymphedema have been treated with microsurgical techniques. Derivative lymphatic microvascular procedures recognize today its most exemplary application in multiple lymphatic-venous anastomoses (LVA).

In case of associated venous disease reconstructive lymphatic microsurgery techniques have been developed. Objective assessment

was undertaken by water volumetry and lymphoscintigraphy. Results: Subjective improvement was noted in 87% of patients. Objectively, volume changes Aspartate showed a significant improvement in 83%, with an average reduction of 67% of the excess volume. Of those patients followed-up, 85% have been able to discontinue the use of conservative measures, with an average follow-up of more than 10 years and average reduction in excess volume of 69%. There was a 87% reduction in the incidence of cellulitis after microsurgery. Conclusions: Microsurgical LVA have a place in the treatment of peripheral lymphedema, and should be the therapy of choice in patients who are not sufficiently responsive to nonsurgical treatment. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc. Microsurgery, 2010. “
“We present the case of a 40-year-old patient with sickle cell trait who underwent bilateral breast reconstruction with microvascular TRAM flap transfer. Intraoperatively, the patient developed arterial anastomotic thrombosis of the right breast flap. The left breast flap had already been harvested and was placed on ice. Both anastomoses were then successfully completed. Postoperatively, the patient developed a pulmonary embolism and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. On postoperative day 12, the left cutaneous Doppler signals were lost, and exploration revealed a thrombosed pedicle and nonviable left breast flap.

2). Microscopically the colons of mice given sirolimus displayed a marked reduction in the tissue disruption, mucosal ulcerations and mononuclear cell infiltration, which was accompanied by reduced MPO activity (Fig. 2). The mean histological score was significantly lower in sirolimus-treated mice when compared with PBS-treated mice (Fig. 2b). Subsequently, we evaluated the effect of sirolimus on the production of inflammatory cytokines that are involved in the pathology of TNBS-induced colitis. We isolated colons and assessed the cytokine mRNA expression in tissue homogenates on day 3 by RT-qPCR.

As shown in Figure 3, TNBS induced a marked increase in mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, TNF-α and IL-17A in Doxorubicin the colon homogenates, whereas sirolimus treatment suppressed the mRNA expressions of these cytokines. On the contrary, significantly enhanced amounts of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and TGF-β were observed in the colon homogenates of sirolimus-treated mice compared with that of PBS-treated mice. We next determined the immunoregulatory effect of sirolimus on Th17 cells in TNBS-induced colitis. The MLN cells were isolated and cultured with PMA and Con A for 48 hr. As shown in Figure 4(a), MLN cells from sirolimus-treated mice

exhibited a marked reduction of IL-6 learn more and IL-17A secretion compared with those of PBS-treated mice. Notably, there was a significant increase in the levels of TGF-β with sirolimus treatment (Fig. 4a). Meanwhile, MLN cells from sirolimus-treated mice showed obviously lower percentages of Th17 cells and expression of RORγt mRNA by flow cytometry and RT-qPCR, respectively, compared with PBS-treated mice (Fig. 4b,c). Regulatory immune

cells such as CD4+ CD25+ T cells play a crucial role for the pathogenesis of both human IBD and the animal models.[19, 21] Hence, we further investigated whether the beneficial effect of sirolimus is associated with modulation of Treg cell function in TNBS-induced over colitis. First, the cell populations of CD4+ CD25+ T cells in MLNs were analysed by flow cytometry. CD4+ CD25+ T cells are known to express high levels of Foxp3, a transcription factor that in a normal mouse is selectively expressed in CD25+ Treg cells.[21] The number of CD25+ Foxp3+ Treg cells in MLNs from sirolimus-treated mice was significantly higher than that from PBS-treated mice (Fig. 5a). We next assessed the mRNA expression of Foxp3 in MLNs by RT-qPCR. Consistent with the results of flow cytometric analysis, mRNA expression of Foxp3 in MLNs from sirolimus-treated mice was markedly enhanced relative to that from PBS-treated mice (Fig. 5b). Furthermore, to clarify the function of Treg cells in MLN, a T-cell suppression assay was performed.

, 2008; Chiang et al., 2012). The MexEF-OprN and MexXY-oprM efflux systems of P. aeruginosa were shown to be upregulated in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS), and it was proposed that this efflux system exports cellular constituents damaged by ROS (Poole, 2008). This is particularly interesting because bacteria INCB018424 ic50 in biofilms experience increased oxidative stress (Driffield et al., 2008) which might promote upregulation of these pumps. Thus, in contrast to earlier reported results, it seems that the conventional efflux pumps may play a role in antibiotic tolerance in P. aeruginosa biofilms. Similar

results have been reported in biofilms formed by Escherichia coli isolates from urinary tract infection, where many of the efflux pumps involved in removal of toxic substances, including many antibiotics,

were highly upregulated during biofilm growth (Kvist et al., 2008). Given this increasing evidence for a role of efflux pumps in the tolerance of biofilms to antibiotics, it seems clear that the use of efflux-pump inhibitors might improve the efficacy of antibiotic treatment. Interestingly, it has been shown that inactivation of efflux pumps abolished E. coli biofilm formation (Kvist et al., 2008). The authors speculated that efflux pump activity might be required in the biofilms in order to remove waste products from the bacterial cells. Thus, biofims of CF isolates overexpressing these pumps would show increased tolerance to antipseudomonal drugs, but this awaits confirmation. find more The above in vitro studies have shown that the phenotypes that are selected during chronic infection of CF patients with P. aeruginosa (alginate hyperproduction and hypermutabillity) influence the structure and architecture of the biofilms,

thus increasing their tolerance to antimicrobials. In addition, the persistence of the bacteria in biofilms for long periods of time under the selective antibiotic pressure promotes development of mutational resistance mechanisms, making management of the biofilm infection even more difficult. The obvious implications of these studies are early treatment strategies to prevent or eradicate Rucaparib chemical structure biofilm formation in the very early stages, and maintenance of the intermittent colonization stages for long periods of time (Doring & Hoiby, 2004). This is a strategy proposed in the European consensus for the treatment of P. aeruginosa lung infection of CF patients, which has proved beneficial in several CF centres (Frederiksen et al., 1997; Doring & Hoiby, 2004; Taccetti et al., 2005; Mayer-Hamblett et al., 2012). The efficiency of the treatment depends of the choice of drugs at PK/PD-targeted dosages. Based on in vitro studies the choice of drugs should be made in accordance with the effect on the various biofilm subpopulations: for example, ciprofloxacin which aims at the metabolically active subpopulation and colistin which aims at the metabolically inactive subpopulation (Haagensen et al., 2007; Pamp et al., 2008).

Among subjects with sarcoidosis, those living in homes with higher NAHA values had a higher spontaneous as well as LPS-induced secretion of IL-6

and IL-10. This agrees in principle with findings from a study on farmers, where the blood cell secretion of IL-10 was related to their occupational endotoxin exposure [20]. The chest X-ray score was related selleck compound to the LPS- and P-glucan-induced secretion of all cytokines. This probably reflects the chronic inflammatory condition present in sarcoidosis. It could be of interest to explore the usefulness of this kind of in vitro challenge for monitoring sarcoidosis and the effects of treatment. A synthesis of the different findings regarding effects of FCWA and the mechanisms known to be involved in sarcoidosis demonstrates several similarities. FCWA are known to induce an inflammatory response, chiefly through the Dectin-1 receptor. There was an induction of TNF-α secretion as well as IL-10, which is similar to the findings in sarcoidosis. The relationships between home exposure and cytokine secretion reflect a more intensive inflammation when exposed to the causative agent. The inverse relationship between the FCWA exposure at home and the capacity to secrete cytokines reflects the exhaustion of the system, as evidenced by the higher spontaneous secretion

at higher exposure levels. The emphasis towards Th1-derived reactions, particularly TNF-α, relates to the lower incidence Selleck Etoposide of atopy among subjects with sarcoidosis [31]. The results demonstrate that cellular and systemic reactions related to

fungal or FCWA exposure are stronger among subjects with sarcoidosis. The augmented inflammatory response to FCWA among subjects with sarcoidosis and the relation to domestic fungal exposure relate to the inflammatory nature of the disease. The FCWA-induced effects on the cytokine secretion suggest an influence on anti-inflammatory defence mechanisms that might be important in the development of sarcoidosis. Further research on the interaction between FCWA and cell reactivity Doxacurium chloride is warranted, with emphasis on clinical and preventive aspects. None of the authors have any disclosures to make. The study was supported by a grant from the Slovenian research agency, programme number P3-0083-0381, a grant from the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology of the Republic of Slovenia (doctoral fellowship), and the University Medical Center Ljubljana, Terciar Research programme number 70199. “
“Trappin-2/Elafin is a serine protease inhibitor that plays a major role as an anti-inflammatory mediator at mucosal surfaces. In addition, Trappin-2/Elafin has antibacterial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial and fungal pathogens. In this study we examined the production of Trappin-2/Elafin by epithelial cells from the human upper and lower female reproductive tract as well as its activity as an anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 molecule.

Diagnostic approaches in suspected Aspergillus infection of the eye consist of fundoscopic examination, ultrasonography of the eyeball and examination of visual acuity, to analyse the extension of the infected tissue. A tissue sample

of the affected LY2157299 nmr tissue is needed to confirm the infection by culture.[16] Surgical treatment is a key factor in management of the infection, because penetration of systemically administered antifungal agents into the eye only reaches certain compartments. Therefore, infections localised near the chorioretinal layers can be treated with systemic antifungal agents, but treatment of other intraocular locations requires penetration of the antifungal agent through

the relatively impermeable blood–eye barrier. Most studies therefore recommend the application of voriconazole directly into the eye by intravitreal injection.[16] Surgical vitrectomy allows removal of areas of infection that do not respond to systemic antifungal agents. In a study published in 2006 by Callanan et al. [27], five cases of Aspergillus endophthalmitis following cataract surgery, standard phacoemulsification and posterior chamber intraocular lens (IOL) insertion were discussed. Two of these five patients were immunocompromised; however, none of them had preexisting Aspergillus infection in any other organ system. Three patients required enucleation of the infected eye (60%); the remaining two patients were discharged with final visual acuity 20/30 in one patient

and 20/200 in selleck chemical the other patient. Interestingly, in the two cases in which enucleation could be avoided, surgical debridement of local nidus of infection was performed. Denning found that both vitrectomy and intravitreal amphotericin B treatment were essential for Aspergillus endophthalmitis.[17] Weishaar et al. [31] reviewed 12 cases (12 eyes in 10 patients) of culture proven endogenous endophthalmitis, caused by Aspergillus in 1998. Surgical management consisted of pars plana vitrectomy in 10 of 12 eyes and enucleation could not be prevented in two of 12 eyes, due to retinal detachment, marked inflammation and hypotony. The outcome was better Glutamate dehydrogenase in patients, who presented without central macular involvement. If the lens is also affected, lensectomy is recommended, in refractory cases enucleation may be of benefit and in aspergillosis of the orbita radical debridement is indicated to prevent invasion of the eye and the CNS.[16, 31] Surgical debridement of Aspergillus keratitis and conjunctiva flap in case of superficial lesions and progression under antifungal therapy are recommended in some cases.[32-37] In case of deep lesions, penetrating keratoplasty is preferred.

Conclusion: Single Aliskiren treatment has renal and vascular protective effects in hypertensive patients with CKD. It inhibited plasma renin activity but did not affect serum s(P)RR levels in these patients. ERIGUCHI MASAHIRO, learn more TORISU KUMIKO, MASUTANI KOSUKE, TSURUYA KAZUHIKO, KITAZONO TAKANARI Department of Medicine and Clinical Science Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University Introduction: Recently, catheter-based renal sympathetic denervation (DNx) has been applied in the clinical setting. Despite treatment with renin-angiotensin system (RAS) inhibitors and β-blockers for most

patients with DNx involved in these clinical studies, potential beneficial effects beyond blood pressure control have not been fully elucidated. The current study aimed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of bidirectional

cardio-renal interaction, including the cycle involving the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and RAS. We speculated that the mechanisms of the cardio-renal cycle may involve renal sympathetic nerves driving disruption of local RAS. Methods: A Wistar rat chronic Nω-nitro-L-arginine GSK126 cost methyl ester (L-NAME; a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor) administration model was used to induce damage both in the heart and kidney, similar to cardio-renal syndrome. The rats were divided into four groups: control, L-NAME, L-NAME with bilateral DNx, and L-NAME with hydralazine group. Cardio-renal injury, SNS, circulating RAS and local RAS were evaluated. We also examined rats treated with L-NAME + unilateral DNx to confirm direct sympathetic regulation of intrarenal RAS. Serial measurements of kidney angiotensin II and urinary

angiotensinogen of both kidneys were performed to examine the laterality of local RAS within the same rats. Results: L-NAME induced SNS-RAS over-activity Dimethyl sulfoxide and cardio-renal injury accompanied by local RAS elevations. These changes were suppressed by bilateral DNx, but not by hydralazine treatment, even though blood pressure was kept to the same levels. Although L-NAME induced local RAS activation to similar levels in both organs, kidney angiotensinogen mRNA was suppressed contradictory; that was different from the heart with increasing in angiotensinogen mRNA. Immunostaining for angiotensinogen suggested that DNx suppressed local generation of angiotensinogen by activating macrophages/cardiac fibroblasts in the heart and circulatory angiotensinogen excretion from glomeruli of the kidney. In term of unilateral DNx model, the levels of kidney angiotensin II and urinary angiotensinogen from denervated kidneys were less than the levels from contralateral innervated kidneys within the same rats. Renal injury in denervated kidneys was alleviated compared with contralateral innervated kidneys by the end of the study.

To confirm our analysis we next measured Bcl-3 mRNA expression

by qRT–PCR in an additional, independent patient cohort of 21 CD, 21 UC and six normal control colon tissue samples. Importantly, this independent analysis of Bcl-3 mRNA expression also revealed a statistically significant increase in Bcl-3 gene expression in CD tissue samples relative to normal healthy controls (P < 0·05) (Fig. 1a). Moreover, the magnitude of increase of Bcl-3 mRNA levels in CD and UC relative to normal controls was similar in our tissue samples and in those contained in the previous microarray analysis. Next we measured Bcl-3 gene expression levels in wild-type mice receiving 6 days treatment with 2% DSS followed by 2 days without DSS to induce colitis. We found an increase in Bcl-3 mRNA in wild-type DSS-treated mice relative to untreated control mice (Fig. 1b). Taken Romidepsin purchase together, these data

demonstrate a strong correlation between increased Bcl-3 mRNA expression and colitis in both a murine model and human IBD. In order to investigate further the potential role of Bcl-3 in IBD we performed DSS-induced acute colitis in Bcl-3−/− and wild-type littermate controls. Wild-type and Bcl-3−/− mice were treated with 2% DSS in their drinking water for 6 days, after which they were monitored for an additional 2 days, during which time they selleck chemicals received normal drinking water. Within 4 days of beginning DSS treatment both Bcl-3−/− and wild-type mice developed characteristic symptoms associated with DSS-induced colitis. These included hunched posture and changes in stool consistency, including rectal bleeding ifenprodil and diarrhoea. By day 8 following DSS treatment wild-type mice had lost greater than

12% of their body weight (day 6; P < 0·01, day 7; P < 0·001, day 8; P < 0·001; Fig. 2a). In contrast, DSS-treated Bcl-3−/− mice did not demonstrate any significant loss of body mass when compared to untreated Bcl-3−/− mice up to 8 days following the initial DSS treatment (Fig. 2a). When rectal bleeding, diarrhoea, hunched posture and weight loss of DSS-treated and -untreated mice were scored and combined to give a DAI score we found that Bcl-3−/− mice develop a significantly less severe form of DSS-induced colitis (Fig. 2b). The reduced disease observed in Bcl-3−/− mice was not a consequence of reduced DSS intake, as water consumption was equivalent between groups during the experiment (data not shown). These data demonstrate clearly that Bcl-3 contributes to colitis. Macroscopic analysis of colon tissue was performed on day 8 after the beginning of DSS treatment. Wild-type DSS-treated mice demonstrated significant shortening of the colon when compared to untreated controls (P < 0·05; Fig. 2c). Surprisingly, a similar degree of colon shortening was observed in DSS-treated Bcl-3−/− mice when compared to untreated Bcl-3−/− controls (Fig. 2c).

The vast majority (62%) had abrupt PD technique failure. This is a marked difference to dated reports of AVF use after concurrent PD and AVF formation. It raises the possibility that the formation of back-up fistula may be another method to reduce the need for vascular catheter use. “
“Automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) and double-bag continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) are the two current standard modalities of peritoneal dialysis (PD). Outcomes

of these two modalities have not been well described. A single-centre, retrospective review was carried out to compare the treatment failure rate of APD and double-bag CAPD. Treatment failure was a combined endpoint including death and technique failure. Cox regression was used to compare risk (hazard ratio, HR) of Everolimus in vitro treatment failure in APD and CAPD. There were 121 patients included in this study, 55 with APD and 66 with CAPD. APD patients had significantly lower risk of treatment failure (death and technique failure)

than CAPD patients (HR 0.58, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.37–0.91, P = 0.02). The lower risk of treatment failure in APD compared to CAPD was mainly caused by the significantly lower risk of technique failure (HR 0.30, 95%CI: 0.10–0.93, P = 0.04). The mortality rates of the two modalities were not significantly different (HR 0.69, 95%CI: 0.42–1.12, P = 0.13). Our data suggest buy LGK-974 that APD may have lower risk of treatment failure compared with double-bag CAPD. These potential benefits of APD might justify the use of this modality despite its higher cost. “
“Aim:  This pilot study compared mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and tacrolimus (Tac) in the treatment of severe membranous lupus nephritis (MLN). Method:  This was a 24 month prospective, randomized, open-label multi-centre exploratory study on Chinese patients with biopsy-proven pure Class V MLN with nephrotic syndrome. Patients were randomized to treatment

with either MMF or Tac, both in combination with prednisolone and the efficacy and tolerability outcomes were examined. Results:  Sixteen patients were included, seven in the MMF and nine in the Tac treatment arm. At 24 months the complete response, partial response and overall response rates were 57.1% vs. 11.1% (P = 0.049), 14.3% vs. 44.4% (P = 0.197) and 71.4% vs. 55.6% (P = 0.515) in the MMF and Tac groups, respectively. The two groups had similar reduction of proteinuria and Rebamipide longitudinal profiles of serum albumin and creatinine levels. Serum creatinine remained stable in both groups, except in two patients who had a transient increase associated with high Tac blood levels. Adverse events in the MMF group included herpes zoster in one patient and reversible leucopenia in another, while in the Tac group four patients had severe infections and one developed new onset diabetes. No relapse occurred during the study period. Conclusion:  Both MMF and Tac when combined with corticosteroids are effective treatment options for severe MLN.

Spontaneous contractions and possible consequent afferent nerve firing might participate in the generation of OAB. The authors declare no conflict of interest. “
“Objectives: We report on our initial data from a prospective study to determine the efficacy of high-frequency magnetic stimulation on the sacral root (MSSR) for the intractable post-radical prostatectomy, stress urinary

incontinence (SUI). Methods: A total of 14 men with persistent SUI after a radical prostatectomy underwent treatment once every 2 weeks over a 40-week period for a total of 20 sessions. The outcome was assessed by these variables at baseline, at immediately after the first session, and at immediately after the final (20th) session. Results: Mean leak episodes (per day) consistently decreased after the first to the final session XL765 mouse (from 6.1 check details ± 2.9 to 3.5 ± 2.6, and to 3.0 ± 2.3, P < 0.01), and it remained to be decreased following 2 months after

the final session. The mean pad weight (per h) also decreased after the treatment (but no statistically significant change compared to the pretreatment level). The cystometric bladder capacity at the first desire to void and the capacity at the strong desire to void increased significantly following the high-frequency MSSR (first desire to void: from 146 ± 43 to 182 ± 52 mL; strong desire to void: from 224 ± 69 to 258 ± 60 mL, P < 0.01). No obvious complication was observed in any patients during or after the treatment. Conclusion: This study provides the preliminary evidence that high-frequency MSSR may potentially afford a useful option with minimal invasiveness L-NAME HCl for the patients with obstinate SUI after a radical prostatectomy. “
“Objectives: The aim of the present study was to determine the causes for overactive bladder (OAB) symptoms in women visiting a urological clinic. Methods: We prospectively recruited female patients with OAB symptoms between December 2008 and February 2010. All patients were interviewed for their

detailed personal and medical history. All patients completed a 3-day frequency-volume chart. Symptom severity was evaluated using the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) and Overactive Bladder Symptom Score (OABSS) questionnaires. All patients underwent either conventional pressure-flow urodynamic studies or video-urodynamic studies. On the basis of these evaluations, patients were assigned to one of the following categories: idiopathic OAB, stress urinary incontinence (SUI)-associated, neurogenic bladder, or bladder outlet obstruction (BOO). Results: A total of 108 female patients were recruited into the study. The mean age of the patients was 63.75 ± 14.02 years (range: 23–89). Detrusor overactivity was demonstrated in 55 patients (51%). The differential diagnosis was idiopathic OAB in 51 women (47.2%), SUI-associated in 46 (42.6%), neurogenic bladder in 13 (12.0%) and BOO in 7 (6.5%).

After washing five times with PBST, the plates were incubated with HRP-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG for 1 hr. After washing a further five times with PBST, o-phenylanediamine (400 μg/ml) and H2O2 (0.2 μl/ml) in phosphate-citrate buffer (pH 5.0) were added to each well, and the plates incubated at 37°C for 30 min. The reaction was terminated by adding 5 M H2SO4, and then the OD at 490 nm was measured. Binding to PG was calculated by subtracting the OD value of wells not coated with PG. In some experiments, His-tagged sMD-2 or sCD14 (100 ng/ml each) was added in the presence of the indicated concentration of PG, and then the binding of either

sMD-2 or sCD14 to PG was measured as described above. To study the effects of sMD-2 and sCD14 on bacterial growth, either E. coli or B. subtilis was cultured in DMEM in BYL719 concentration the presence Alectinib order of sMD-2 or sCD14 at 37°C for up to 18 hr. Myosin, which

had no effects on bacterial growth up to 1 μg/ml (data not shown), was added as a control. Although bacterial growth in DMEM is slow, we used protein-free DMEM for culture to avoid the influence of excess proteins in the bacterial culture media. After incubation, bacterial viability was measured by colony counting (Fig. 1). Growth of E. coli had almost plateaued at 6 hr, and at 18 hr the number of CFU was about ten-fold higher than in the case of the starting culture (Fig. 1a). Addition of sMD-2 slightly inhibited the growth, while sCD14 caused a greater decrease in the number of cells (Fig. 1a). In contrast, B. subtilis growth continued out to 18 hr, and only slight growth inhibition was observed with the addition of sMD-2 or sCD14 (Fig. 1b). Since bacteria cultured in the presence of either sMD-2 or sCD14 aggregated strongly,

it is possible that the number of bacteria was not correctly counted. Therefore, we measured NADPH/NADH activity to reflect the number of live bacteria by using Decitabine supplier the MTS assay (Fig. 2). When either sMD-2 or sCD14 was added to these cultures, these proteins inhibited the growth of both E. coli and B. subtilis in a concentration-dependent manner (Fig. 2). A strong inhibitory effect of sMD-2 on E. coli growth was observed only at the highest sMD-2 concentration (1 μg/ml). Since both sMD-2 and sCD14 bind to LPS, we studied the role of LPS on the effects of sMD-2 and sCD14 on bacterial growth. We first examined the inhibitory effect of a sCD14 mutant (sCD14d57-64) that lacks the ability to bind LPS but can still bind PG (23, 24). In contrast to the strong growth inhibition of wild- type sCD14, when E. coli was cultured in the presence of sCD14d57-64, no inhibitory effect on growth was observed (Fig. 3a). Conversely, sCD14d57-64 inhibited growth of B. subtilis similarly to wild-type sCD14 (Fig. 3b). Since sMD-2 and sCD14 inhibited the growth of B.