We performed immunostaining against the vesicular glutamate transporter (VGlut1), a presynaptic marker for glutamatergic synapses, and, in a separate set of animals, against VGAT and gephyrin, pre- and postsynaptic markers for GABAergic synapses. We found that spines were juxtaposed to VGlut1 positive structures at a level much higher than chance (Figures 1D and 1E), but not to VGAT- and gephyrin-positive structures

(Figure 1E). In fact, spines colocalized with inhibitory synaptic markers (either one or both markers) at levels significantly lower than chance. Together, these data suggest that the majority of spines on the dendrites of inhibitory neurons carry synapses, and that most of these are learn more from excitatory, but not inhibitory, presynaptic neurons. Having shown that spines http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Bafilomycin-A1.html of inhibitory neurons colocalize

with markers for excitatory synapses, we next explored if these synapses carried functional receptors. In acute slices of visual cortex, we used whole cell voltage clamp recordings of GFP-expressing spiny inhibitory neurons to measure excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked by focal two-photon glutamate uncaging. Glutamate uncaging immediately adjacent to spines consistently elicited EPSCs in all spines tested (n = 15, Figures 1F and 1G). Uncaging performed at the same distance from the dendritic shaft in the absence of a spine consistently evoked far smaller responses (Figures 1F and 1G), suggesting that currents

were likely elicited through synapses on spines and not the result of glutamate diffusion to synapses located elsewhere. Together, these data show that dendritic spines of inhibitory also neurons carry functional glutamatergic receptors. For excitatory pathways, it has been shown that dendritic spines on cortical pyramidal neurons are not stable over time. Even under baseline conditions, new spines grow and existing ones disappear (Grutzendler et al., 2002, Hofer et al., 2009, Holtmaat et al., 2006, Keck et al., 2008, Majewska et al., 2006, Trachtenberg et al., 2002 and Zuo et al., 2005). To examine whether interneuron spines show a similar behavior, we used repeated two-photon imaging in the monocular visual cortex of adult (p80-100) GAD65-GFP mice (López-Bendito et al., 2004 and Wierenga et al., 2010). We imaged the dendrites of inhibitory neurons located in layers 1 and 2/3 (0–200 μm below the pial surface). Previous work has reported modifications of dendritic branch tips of inhibitory neurons in visual cortex (Lee et al., 2006 and Lee et al., 2008), which increase after plasticity (Chen et al., 2011); however, for the types of interneurons labeled in the GAD65-GFP mouse line used here, we found that dendrites were largely stable. In contrast, and similar to excitatory neurons (Grutzendler et al., 2002, Hofer et al., 2009, Holtmaat et al., 2006, Keck et al., 2008, Majewska et al., 2006, Trachtenberg et al., 2002 and Zuo et al.