The pulse results in an increase in voltage on top of the V oc for each cell. PVD

data were smoothed via a moving average, and the half-life of the decay was used as characteristic lifetime. Extracted charge was estimated from the PCD data by integrating the resulting transient signals. Results and discussion Figure 2a,b,c CYT387 purchase presents surface scanning electron microscopy (SEM) INCB28060 in vitro images of the Thin/NR cells at different stages of fabrication. Densely packed nanorods were obtained over the entire deposition area on bare ITO. The 3D conformal nature of the cell surface can be appreciated from the SEM surface images, where the structure of the array can still be observed both after the blend coating (Figure 2b), and Ag contacts were applied (Figure 2c). Figure 2 SEM/STEM characterization. (a) Electrodeposited ZnO nanorod arrays, (b) arrays coated with a thin P3HT:PCBM highly conformal layer, (c) Ag contact evaporated on top of the P3HT:PCBM layer (Thin/NR cells) with arrows indicating a few spots where shadowing from the nanorods prevented Ag deposition, (d) cross-sectional image of a Thin/NR cell, (e, f) cross-sectional images

of different areas of the Thin/NR cell, (g, h) STEM images of cross sections of Thin/NR samples and (i) cross-sectional image of a conventional hybrid cell (Thick/NR). Figure 2d,e,f,g,h presents SEM and STEM cross-sectional images of the Thin/NR cells. Figure 2i shows a conventional VEGFR inhibitor Thick/NR hybrid cell. It is seen that the nanorods are approximately 800-nm long, being coated by a thin layer of P3HT:PCBM blend (<50 nm as observed from the leading edge of the blend adjacent to the nanorod in Figure 2g, although the exact value was difficult to elucidate and some gradient could be present from the top to the bottom of the nanorods), and <50 nm Ag. The high conformality of the blend coating is best exemplified by Figure 2d,e,f,g,h. Approximately 50 nm is well below the mean free path of both electrons and holes in

a polymer-fullerene blend; thus the blend morphology most likely does not even have to be completely optimised [29]. Although the Ag coating on the ZnO nanorods is less uniform than the blend coating, owing to the fact that Ag preferentially deposits on surfaces selleck kinase inhibitor exposed to the vapour source (see left-hand side of Figure 2d), the large sample-boat distance in the evaporator (35 cm) ensures a relatively high Ag coverage of the NRs. This is most clearly seen in Figure 2c, where only some small spots in the sample (see arrows in the figure) are not coated by Ag due to shadowing from adjacent rods), and also in Figure 2g where Ag can be seen forming a quasi-conformal coating all over the surface of a ZnO rod. The quasi-conformal Ag coating is found to be important for improving charge extraction and contributing to light trapping in the cell, as will be discussed later. Figure 3a,b shows the EQE and PV data for the best Thin/NR and Thick/NR cells obtained, respectively.