Many cytokines, particularly TNF-α and IL-1, are known mediators of endothelial activation and dysfunction (reviewed in [107]). TNF-α acts in part by inhibiting endothelium-dependent

Carfilzomib chemical structure relaxation [13]. In vitro, it reduces expression of eNOS [154] as well as decreases the availability of arginine, the substrate of eNOS, by suppressing the activity of argininosuccinate synthase expression [52]. In addition, TNF-α is associated with an increased expression of a number of powerful vasoconstrictors, including PDGF and ET-1 [54, 82]. ET-1 is elevated in the circulation of women with preeclampsia [17], and in vitro studies show increased PDGF expression by endothelial cells in response to serum from women with preeclampsia [141]. In addition to directly influencing vasodilatation and vasoconstriction, TNF-α can cause endothelial dysfunction by stimulating the production of ROS via NAD(P)H oxidase [46] . The interaction between inflammation and endothelial activation is highly complex in preeclampsia (reviewed in [15]). In addition to displaying altered function when activated by inflammation, endothelial cells play an important role in the induction of the inflammatory response, particularly via selleck chemical the activation and migration of leukocytes [29]. Promotion of

inflammation leads to further endothelial activation and progression of the maternal systemic syndrome. Preeclampsia is also associated with increased production of AT1-AA by mature B cells [146]. AT1-AA stimulates the AT1 receptor to cause a significant increase in vasoconstriction [153]. In the rat RUPP model of preeclampsia, LaMarca and colleagues found that hypertension is associated with an increase in AT1-AA in RUPP rats [70]. In addition, they showed that a reduction in AT1 activation via administration of receptor agonists or B-cell depletion resulted in a decline in blood pressure [69, 70]. AT1-AA may cause endothelial dysfunction through a variety of mechanisms. It is associated with the secretion of IL-6 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (Pai-1)

in humans [14] and promotes Liothyronine Sodium expression of the vasoconstrictor peptide ET-1 in AT1-AA-infused rats [68]. Furthermore, AT1-AA-induced hypertension in rats is associated with renal endothelial dysfunction, characterized by impaired vasodilatation [103]. An increase in AT1-AA is associated with oxidative stress in the placenta of rats [104]. In human VSMC and trophoblasts in vitro, AT1-AA stimulates NADPH oxidase expression and activity, leading to increased ROS formation and activation of NF-kB, which may contribute to inflammation [34]. In addition, AT1-AA may act as a stimulus for the expression of the antiangiogenic factors sFlt-1 and sEng in preeclamptic women [102, 155]. Interestingly, Hubel et al.