Managing natural resources is largely about managing human interactions with the natural environment but it is also about responding to broader changes in the human and natural environment. MPA managers use site specific strategies to manage human

actions, incursions, and developments at the local scale and mitigate against changes at the macro scale. The effectiveness of management is influenced by availability of resources, legislative and public support, levels of cross-scale coordination and cooperation, and a number of other governance considerations. These topics are explored in the following section. As discussed previously, PR 171 both traditional resource-based and alternative forms of development can have negative impacts on the environment. Since the long term success of local MPA-related livelihoods, such as fishing and tourism, often relies on the health and productivity of the local environment there is a need

for ongoing management of development: “Sustainable use approaches are predicated on the concept that the living resources of an MPA replenish themselves naturally and can be exploited within limits” [24]. For example, not managing tourism may threaten the longevity of the benefits that MPAs can provide [61], [177] and [178]. Management of tourism includes establishing and adhering to a local carrying capacity, limiting levels of development, establishing DAPT cost standards for development, creating zones for tourism, and implementing management strategies to ensure recreational impacts are avoided—i.e., from trampling, anchoring, and diving [14], [16], [54] and [178]. Limiting recreational impacts may include strategies such as educating tourists and experience providers, installing mooring buoys, rotating dive sites, spacing out divers, monitoring divers, and establishing and enforcing regulations [16], [42], [74] and [179]. Management

strategies for mitigating the impacts of tourism on local communities should also be considered. Similarly, if aquaculture is deemed an acceptable MPA use, management strategies may include establishing a suitable carrying capacity, raising mainly herbivorous species, and developing sustainable aquaculture [80]. The management of fishing, harvesting, and other resource extraction activities, such as coral mining, C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) both inside MPAs and in the broader seascape outside MPAs is also necessary. Required management actions might include reducing levels of extraction, establishing extractive and no-take zones, shifting the focus of fishing effort, reducing destructive gear use and destructive fishing practice, controlling outside access, and effectively enforcing regulations [48], [73], [96], [139] and [180]. Effective enforcement of regulations is broadly recognized as an essential aspect of any form of open or limited access pool of resources [124] and [155], including marine protected areas [181].