In the current study, for the first time, we demonstrated that levamisole supplementation could also effectively improve the response rates of haemodialysis patients to tetanus vaccination. click here A high proportion of haemodialysis patients have been reported to have unprotective anti-tetanus antibody levels.[2, 14] Moreover, the response rates of these patients to Td vaccination have been reported to be significantly lower than healthy controls

because of impaired humoral and cellular immunity.[3-5] Because of this impaired seroconversion rate, it is recommended that haemodialysis patients should be monitored for antibody levels after tetanus vaccination and receive boosters if needed.[15] As shown in our study, levamisole could significantly enhance the response rate to tetanus vaccination in haemodialysis patients Ibrutinib clinical trial and may obviate the need for monitoring antibody levels after vaccination. Levamisole supplementation, in particular might be beneficial to haemodialysis patients who are unlikely to respond tetanus vaccination such as elderly, immunocompromised

or malnourished patients. However, our study had a small sample size and a short duration of follow-up. Because of these limitations, our results need to be confirmed in trials with larger sample sizes and longer durations of follow-up before any change in vaccination policy of haemodialysis patients could be made. Different protocols of levamisole therapy have been tried in the haemodialysis patients to enhance the seroconversion rate following HBV vaccination.

Sali et al.[12] reported that supplementing the HBV vaccination with 100 mg of levamisole after each haemodialysis session for 6 months was not superior to the placebo in enhancing the serconversion rate. However, Kayatas[8] found that supplementing the HBV vaccine with 80 mg of levamisole after each haemodialysis session for 4 months was significantly more effective in enhancing seroconversion rate compared with Dolutegravir chemical structure the placebo. Argani et al.[10] reported that the seroconversion rate in the patients who received HBV vaccination supplemented with daily 100 mg dose of levamisole for 6 days before and 6 days after vaccination was higher than the controls. Similarly, in our study, this 12-day protocol of levamisole supplementation was found to be more effective than placebo in enhancing the seroconversion rate following tetanus vaccination. The 12-day protocol of levamisole supplementation of vaccines is less costly and easier to follow. However, the efficacy of these different protocols for enhancing seroconversion following vaccination in haemodialysis patients should be further evaluated in larger studies. In our study, four patients (two from the levamisole and two from the placebo group) who were seropositive at 1 month post-vaccination became seronegative at 6 months.