Discharges of all kinds can be regulated, for ships in general and in specific areas. Emission controls are likely to be addressed, at least in part, in the broader context of Arctic shipping, for example through the development of the Polar Code by the IMO (see Section 6 below). For the Bering Strait region, additional regulations may be appropriate, such as minimum distances from shore or communities before discharging or incinerating waste.

Voyage and contingency planning is another important measure to mitigate risk. Research shows that human error contributes to 80% of navigational accidents, which suggests that correctly assessing information, creating and implementing viable plans for voyages, and monitoring these plans will significantly reduce risk of accidents and other mishaps [66]. In 2007, the IMO adopted Small molecule library Navitoclax clinical trial “Guidelines for Voyage Planning for Passenger Ships Operating in Remote Areas.” Some of the considerations in the guideline include information on the scarcity

and limitations of search and rescue resources, navigational aids and charts; existing knowledge on ice, ice formations, and environmental conditions (wind, fog, weather, etc.); and consideration of safe areas and hazardous, marine corridors, and contingency plans in remote areas with limited search and rescue capabilities [67]. Voyage planning can also help mariner avoid sensitive areas and plan for additional time required by speed restrictions. These specific guidelines will likely be included in the Polar Code by the IMO (see Section 6 below). Salvage, marine firefighting, and spill prevention and preparedness are essential services for reducing the risk of an incident and appropriately responding after an incident to prevent further damage or remove oil spilled in the marine environment. Meloxicam The U.S. Coast Guard recently implemented two new rules

addressing these services, neither of which can be successfully met by existing resource providers in Alaska. The salvage and marine firefighting regulation includes required response timeframes only within 50 miles of the nearest Captain of the Port zone city – Anchorage for western Alaska – thereby exempting vessels traveling the Bering Strait from the timing requirement (Title 33, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 155, Subpart I). The domestic non-tank Vessel Response Plan rule requires vessels over 400 gross tons to contract with a resource provider, such as an Oil Spill Removal Organization (OSRO), that can respond to an oil spill with the required amount of equipment within a specified timeframe; 24 h is the amount of time that would apply to most Alaskan waters (Title 33, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 155, Subpart J). At present, there is only one Alaska-based U.S.