9% NaCI) was employed for intubation of the uninfected control group (n = 3 units). The fish were immediately returned to the respective experimental unit and feeding resumed (every 12 h) to evaluate the appetite during the post challenge period. For the remaining part of the experiment, the fish were kept under continuous visual monitoring, with absence periods of less than 1 h. After 24 h the infected zebrafish were bath-treated with the following antibiotics [Sigma-Aldrich] added to the water: tetracycline (20 μg/ml), trimethoprim (20 μg/ml),

sulphonamide (20 μg/ml) and subtherapeutic (0.06 μg/ml) or therapeutic (2 μg/ml) concentrations of flumequine, respectively. Distilled sterile water (1 ml/L) was used as a placebo treatment while the selleckchem infection control groups were untreated. Sampling and culturing To avoid mortality FG-4592 nmr caused by the A. hydrophila infection prior to sampling, and to ensure maximum RNA preservation in bacteria sampled from the intestinal tract and in the intestinal tissue, fish from the challenged and control groups were observed every hour for three

days following exposure. All fish were euthanized by decapitation at the end of the experiment. The abdominal cavity was opened by incision as described elsewhere Cantas et al. [28]. Entire intestinal samples were transversally sliced (< 0.5 cm) and immediately immersed in RNAlater [Invitrogen] for bacterial and tissue RNA PPAR agonist inhibitor stabilization. Kidney samples from each sacrificed fish were examined bacteriologically for the presence of systemic infection. Specimens were streaked on 5% cattle blood agar and Brocalin agar [Merck, Darmstadt, Germany] as described by Cantas et al. [28]. Gene expression Total RNA from RNAlater-stored tissue samples was extracted using Trizol Reagent [Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA]. Sterile 5 mm steel

beads [Qiagen, Valencia, Atorvastatin CA] were added for complete bacterial lyses in a Qiagen TissueLyser [Qiagen, Valencia, CA], run at 30 Hz for 5 min. Further processing was performed with the RNeasy kit [Qiagen, Valencia, CA]. Complete removal of DNA was achieved by treating the supernatant from the RNeasy processed samples with RNase-Free DNase Set [Qiagen, Valencia, CA]. Gel electrophoresis was used to confirm that isolated RNA was intact while the concentration and purity of the RNA were quantified using NanoDrop® ND-1000 [NanoDrop Technologies, Delaware, USA]. Reverse transcription was performed with Superscript III Reverse Transcriptase [Invitrogen] following the manufacturer’s instructions. cDNA amplifications were performed using previously published and novel designed specific primers [Table 1] by Primer 3 software [29]. Each primer (0.5 μl, 10 μM) was mixed with 18 μl of EXPRESS SYBR GreenER qPCR Supermix [Invitrogen]. Two μl template cDNA was used.