, 2010). They also reported that combination of bacteriophage and ciprofloxacin efficiently kills K. pneumonia biofilm cells and restricts the formation of resistant variants when compared

with individual treatments (Verma et al., 2009). It is well known that environmental cues such as oxygen and carbon substrate concentration can trigger biofilm dispersion (Applegate & Bryers, 1991; Thormann et al., 2005; Gjermansen et al., 2010; Newell et al., 2011). Biofilm dispersion often coincides Selleck Ku-0059436 with alteration of the biofilm EPS components. Understanding the modulation of biofilm EPS components and transduction of the dispersion signals would greatly facilitate the development of dispersion-based strategies to control biofilm formation. In recent years, genetic regulators and

signal transduction pathways for biofilm dispersion have been identified from a number of microorganisms. Gjermansen et al. (2010) selleck chemicals reported that overexpression of a plasmid-born EAL domain protein reduces intracellular c-di-GMP level and activates the LapG cysteine proteinase in biofilms formed by Pseudomonas putida (Gjermansen et al., 2010). The activated LapG proteinase can digest the LapA protein, which functions both as a surface adhesin and as a biofilm matrix component, and cause dispersion of P. putida biofilms (Gjermansen et al., 2010). Three two-component systems, BfiSR, BfmSR and MifSR, are reported to be essential for regulating P. aeruginosa biofilm development (Petrova & Sauer, 2009). Inhibiting the expression of bfiS, bfmR and mifR genes in mature biofilms leads to biofilm architectural collapse and biomass loss (Petrova & Sauer, 2009). Boles & Horswill (2008) reported that activation of the agr quorum-sensing system of S. aureus by autoinducing peptide addition or glucose depletion can trigger biofilm dispersion via a protease-mediated mechanism (Boles & Horswill, 2008). Genetically engineered regulators are used to Ureohydrolase manipulate biofilm formation and dispersion. Uppuluri et al. (2010) demonstrated that modulation of NRG1 gene expression

affects biofilm formation and dispersion by Candida albicans (Uppuluri et al., 2010). Hong et al. (2010a) used random mutagenesis to obtain variants of the global transcriptional regulator Hha, which controls biofilm formation of E. coli probably by activation of proteases (Hong et al., 2010a). One of the obtained Hha variants, Hha13D6 (D22V, L40R, V42I and D48A), causes nearly complete biofilm dispersion by increasing apoptosis (Hong et al., 2010a). The same authors also engineered another global regulator H-NS of E. coli to control its biofilm formation (Hong et al., 2010a b). Analysis of signal transduction molecules involved in biofilm dispersion has led to identification of a series of biofilm dispersion-inducing agents.