Transfer of knowledge indicates meaningful learning (Mayer, 2001, Mayer, 2002 and Haskell, 2001). It requires learners not only to remember what they have learned, but also to solve new problems, answer new questions or facilitate learning of new matter in a different context. Such a meaningful learning is difficult to achieve because it requires multiple cognitive steps: retention, active and purposeful retrieval of specific terms or relevant concepts from long term memory and elaboration, differentiation,

and integration of those concepts in organized cognitive structure (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968, Terry, 2006, Mintzes et al., PFT�� 2005b and Karpicke, 2012). Based on Ausubel׳s learning theory (Ausubel, 1968), the key idea in meaningful learning is that the learner has to integrate gradually, through the mechanism of subsumption, Selleck Talazoparib new pieces of knowledge within existing pathways in his own cognitive structure (Mintzes et al., 2005a). In this perspective, concept map (CM)—tools representing knowledge in maps in which new material can be added—can help students to structure ideas and progressively construct mental representations of abstracts and complex concepts (Novack, 2008). Indeed, numerous studies (Nesbit and Adescope, 2006, and

references therein) have shown that organizing knowledge in CM helps teachers and students to develop meaningful learning. A CM is a graphical tool used to organize and represent knowledge (Novak and Cañ̆as, 2006). In CM, concepts are enclosed within circles or boxes, and linked to each other by directed connecting lines. Words on the lines, or connectors, specify the relationship between the related concepts. An important characteristic of CM is that concepts are represented in a hierarchical way with the most inclusive and general concepts at the top of the map and the more specific and

less general once located below. In Urocanase addition, the presence of “cross-links” on CM highlights relationships between distant concepts in different segments or domains of the CM. These cross-links often represent new and thus creative links from the CM designer, highlighting a complex and integrated knowledge. Specific examples or objects that help clarifying the meaning of a given concept can be included in the CM. These are usually not written in boxes since they do not represent concepts. According to their founder, they are sometimes called “Novakian map” (Davies, 2011). Constructing such Novakian maps is difficult to achieve and the hierarchical polarity described above is not always observed. A qualitative approach analyzing student׳s concept maps highlighted three major patterns referred to as “spoke”, “chain” and “net” structures (Kinchin et al., 2000). For a given scientific content represented, these maps differ in terms of complexity. An increased integration of pieces of knowledge is observed from spoke to net structures.