[Teratogenicity information is readily available from the DART database [450] and Motherisk, www.motherisk.org.] The adverse effects of atenolol CH5424802 on fetal growth have been particularly associated with use from early pregnancy [354],

[355], [356], [357] and [358]. Whether or when to replace ACE inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs), atenolol, or less commonly used antihypertensives pre-pregnancy or when pregnancy is diagnosed, and if so, with what is uncertain, but the following should be considered: If ACE inhibitors and ARBs are being given for renoprotection, no equivalent agent is available for use in pregnancy; however, much of ACE/ARB-related renoprotection is provided lowering BP, achievable by alternatives [7]. Normally, conception may take up to 12 months, CHIR-99021 in vivo but women over 30 years have a higher incidence of subfertility. If an ACE inhibitor is discontinued

pre-pregnancy in a woman with renal disease, yet conception does not occur after 12 months and proteinuria is rising despite excellent BP control (i.e., <140/90 mmHg), it may be prudent to reinstate ACE inhibition, perform monthly pregnancy tests, and proceed with investigations of subfertility. A multidisciplinary approach towards comorbidities and/or cardiovascular risk factors is recommended. Although existing data are reassuring about use of statins in pregnancy, they should be discontinued pre-pregnancy or as soon as pregnancy is diagnosed until further data are available.

Information about safety with treatment at 240–336 weeks will come from the StAmP Trial (ISRCTN 23410175). For information on management of renal disease in pregnancy, see the update by Davison [451]. 1. MgSO4 is recommended for first-line treatment of eclampsia (I-A; High/Strong). For eclampsia, MgSO4 more than halves recurrent seizure rates compared with phenytoin [452], diazepam [453], or a lytic cocktail [454]. Also, MgSO4 (vs. diazepam) reduces maternal death; benzodiazepines should not be used for seizure termination. Loading is with MgSO4 4 g IV (or 5 g in South Africa) over 5 min, followed by infusion of 1 g/h. Treatment of any recurrent seizures is with another 2–4 g IV over 5 min. Serum Mg2+ levels are unnecessary, with women followed clinically for adverse Mg2+-related effects. In women Ketanserin with preeclampsia, MgSO4 (vs. placebo or no therapy) more than halves eclampsia occurrence (RR 0.41; 95% CI 0.29–0.58) [455] and [456]. Loading is with MgSO4 4 g IV over 10–15 min, followed by infusion of 1 g/h. The NNT (95% CI) to prevent one seizure is 50 (34–100) with severe preeclampsia and 100 (100–500) with non-severe preeclampsia. MgSO4 decreases abruption risk (RR 0.64; 95% CI 0.50–0.83; NNT 100 [50–1000]) but increases Caesarean delivery (RR 1.05; 95% CI 1.01–1.10) and side effects (RR 5.26; 95% CI 4.59– 6.03). MgSO4 (vs. phenytoin) reduces eclampsia (RR 0.08; 95% CI 0.01–0.60) but increases Caesarean delivery (RR 1.21; 95% CI 1.

We will also extend the process to include a step to serve parties that

prefer split over whole virus pandemic vaccine and those interested in seasonal vaccine production. A major challenge of the hub model is its sustainability. The need to secure NVI’s international role in building capacity for common public goods such as those described here have led to other initiatives and innovative approaches that will be introduced into the curriculum. For instance, we plan to develop and introduce cell-culture based technology modules for viral vaccine production. Developing countries may thereby enhance their capacity to manufacture BLU9931 in vivo not only influenza, but also other vaccines of high public health relevance, such as rabies or rotavirus. In addition, we serve as a training partner within the recently launched check details project for the technology transfer

of an oil-in-water adjuvant for pandemic influenza vaccines in developing countries. The first years of operation have shown the International Technology Platform for Influenza Vaccines to be a highly successful capacity-building tool. The egg-based pilot-scale process established is robust, consistent and meets all international specifications. The technology is easy to scale up and has proven suitable for transfer to developing country manufacturers. The training and technology transfer objectives have been met, since participants at the fully booked generic courses are successfully using the technology and

know-how gained in their facilities, and two bilateral consultancy agreements for follow-up activities have been signed. The generic hub approach to technology transfer can thus be seen as complementary to the bilateral partnerships for domestic influenza vaccine production reported by the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers & Associations, which usually focus on fill/finish activities.1 In conclusion, technology transfer from the public domain to emerging developing country Idoxuridine manufacturers and regulators will increase global and equitable access to vaccines of high public health relevance. The hub approach is thus meeting a critical international need, and may be worth considering for other vaccines needed in low- and middle-income countries [12]. The authors state they have no conflict of interest. “
“In 2000, the Ministry of Health decided to provide influenza vaccination free of charge to individuals over 60 years of age, patients with chronic diseases, and health-care personnel. The Instituto Butantan – an arm of the São Paulo Office of Health – was charged to develop, produce and register the seasonal vaccine needed to implement this policy decision. The yearly demand for seasonal influenza vaccine was estimated at 25 million doses, to be deployed at 25 000 health centres across the country.

In particular, Ag-adsorbed NP enhanced T-cell proliferation responses in human PBMC (TT) and mouse splenocytes (HIV gp140). Also, gp140-adsorbed NP greatly enhanced serum IgG and IgA after systemic immunization and, more importantly, induced high levels of vaginal IgG and IgA after intranasal immunization. Solid lipid NP were prepared using a low pressure melt-emulsify-chill (MEC) process. A molten yellow carnauba (YC) wax (Koster Keunen, Watertown, CT) was dispersed into a hot

aqueous emulsifier solution under control shear and then cooled to yield a stable dispersion of solid lipid NP. For the preparation of fluorescence NP, the oil-soluble fluorescent dye Pyrromethene-567A (emission wavelength 546 nm, Exciton, Dayton, OH) was encapsulated in the NP. Cationic, anionic and non-ionic emulsifiers comprised MLN8237 ic50 of long carbon chains were used to stabilize and also modify the surface charge of the NP. Particle size was determined by photon correlation spectroscopy using a Brookhaven BI90

Plus (Brookhaven Instruments, Holtsville, NY). The zeta (Z) potential (a measure of the surface electrical charge) of the NP and Ags was measured in 1 mM KCl by phase analysis light scattering using a Malvern Zetasizer NanoZS90 (Malvern Instruments, Malvern, UK). Particle morphology was analyzed by electron microscopy. Serial dilutions of the NP in nanopure water were dispensed in 400 nl and drops onto a silicon chip, and left to dry. Samples Forskolin were kept in the sputtering chamber at 5 × 102 mbar for about 4 h, and then sputter-coated with 15 nM gold. All images were taken at 20 kV, and at various magnifications using a Hitachi S3500N scanning electron microscope. NP colloidal stability was determined by storing 10% solid NP dispersions in glass vials at 5 °C and 25 °C. Particle size and

zeta potential were measured over a 12 month period as described above. For viscosity assessment, NP suspensions were stored in 125 ml plastic bottles for the length of the stability studies and the viscosity measured at different time points using a Brookfield viscometer LVT (Brookfield Engineering Labs, Middleboro, MA). Spindle #4 (low viscosity sample spindle) was placed directly in the sample, and speed setting 6 was used for all measurements. A clade C HIV-1 envelope clone p97CN54 was originally isolated from a Chinese patient [23] and was made available by H. Wolf and R. Wagner, University of Regensburg, Germany. Trimeric gp140 (gp120 plus the external domain (ED) of gp41), designated CN54 gp140, was produced as a recombinant product in CHO cells and manufactured to GMP specification by Polymun Scientific, Vienna, Austria. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and TT were obtained from Sigma–Aldrich, Ayrshire, UK and Statens Serum Institute, Denmark, Copenhagen, respectively.

036) and group 3 (treatment-naïve anti-VEGF injections + no planned supplement intervention; P = .014), but not when compared with group 4 (control; P = .215; Figure 2). Both wet AMD groups not taking omega-3 supplementation (groups 2 and 3) had similar levels of vitreous VEGF-A

(P = .758). Group 3 (treatment naïve) had significantly higher vitreous levels of VEGF-A when compared with nonvascular ocular pathologic features group 4 Idelalisib (controls; P = .039; Figure 2). Seven of 9 patients in group 1 had concentrations of vitreous VEGF-A lower than all but 1 of the patients in group 2 ( Figure 2). Analysis of plasma levels of VEGF-A revealed no significant change between groups (P = .736; Figure 3). Similarly, although values for CFT tended toward improvement,

no significant benefit was noted with omega-3 supplementation in the sample population investigated in this pilot study (P = .211; Figure 4). In this pilot clinical trial, we Ribociclib investigated the influence of omega-3 supplementation on VEGF-A levels in the vitreous of patients undergoing anti-VEGF treatment for wet AMD and noted a significant decrease of VEGF-A in patients receiving omega-3. Dietary intake of omega-3 LCPUFAs and its influence on processes implicated in pathologic retinal angiogenesis has been proposed.18 We previously reported on the pronounced anti-angiogenic effects of certain omega-3 LCPUFA metabolites such as 4-hydroxy-docosahexaenoic acid (a metabolite produced via the 5-lipoxygenase pathway and acting through the peroxisome proliferator-activated nearly receptor). We also demonstrated that increased omega-3 LCPUFA

dietary intake reduces pathologic angiogenesis in experimental animal models of neovascular retinopathies.27, 29 and 32 Our previous genetic work in humans extended these findings to support the influence of omega-3 activated pathway on angiogenesis in wet AMD patients via complement and VEGF signaling systems.33 In the time frame of the current human study, the effects of omega-3 supplementation were exclusive to modulating vitreous levels of VEGF-A in proximity of the site of neovascularization, but not on systemic levels as determined by analysis of plasma. Interestingly, despite the significantly lower levels of VEGF-A in the vitreous of group 1, CFT values were similar to those of group 2 (after an average of 7 prior anti-VEGF injections) and of group 3 (Figure 3 and Table). In accordance with recent work in diabetic macular edema by Sonoda and associates, our findings also demonstrated a lack of correlation between CFT values and vitreous levels of VEGF in patients with active wet AMD (data not shown).34 These data agree with the notion that other factors besides VEGF-A may contribute to disease activity in wet AMD and that combination therapy with other agents is likely necessary in many patients to completely stall CNV activity and promote regression.

001 at weeks 3, 4, 5, and 6) than Ad5.MERS-S when compared with the sera of mice vaccinated with AdΨ5. In fact, IgG1 levels in the sera of mice vaccinated with Ad5.MERS-S showed a less significant difference (*P < 0.05 at weeks 2, 3, and 4; **P < 0.005 at week 5 and 6). In contrast, a highly significant difference in IgG2a response (Th-1) was observed in the sera of mice vaccinated with both Ad5.MERS-S and Ad5.MERS-S1 (****P < 0.0001 at weeks 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) ( Fig. 3B). Interestingly, MERS-S induced an earlier IgG2a response than MERS-S1 (*P < 0.05 vs. no significance at week 1), with IgG2a titers significantly higher at week PF2341066 2 (P = 0.0005), but not after week 3. No MERS-S

or -S1 specific serum antibody responses could be detected within the seven week period in mice immunized with the control adenovirus, AdΨ5. These data indicate that Ad5.MERS-S and Ad5.MERS-S1 can induce both Th1 and Th2 immune responses. Mouse sera were also tested for their ability to neutralize MERS-CoV (EMC isolate). Even a single immunization with adenoviral-based MERS vaccines induced detectable GSK2118436 levels of MERS-CoV-neutralizing antibodies in all animals tested. After week 3 of booster immunization, animals developed robust levels of neutralizing antibodies, while control animals inoculated with AdΨ5 did not (Fig. 4). In some mice immunized with Ad5.MERS-S1,

the highest neutralizing titers were observed as compared to mice immunized with Ad5.MERS-S, although no significant differences between the groups were noted. This result might suggest that Ad5.MERS-S1 expressing secreted S proteins induced a stronger Th2-polarized response, which led to a better antibody-mediated neutralizing activity when compared with Ad5.MERS-S (Fig. 3A). Notably, one of the main limitations for the

use of adenoviral-based vaccine in humans would be the presence of anti-adenoviral neutralizing immunity in a large percentage of camel populations. Thus, to demonstrate the potential of the proposed use of the Ad5.MERS candidate vaccines to be deployed as a veterinary vaccine in dromedary camels, we evaluated the presence of anti-human adenovirus type 5 neutralizing antibodies in this species. As shown in Fig. 5, no neutralization was Phosphatidylinositol diacylglycerol-lyase detected in 12 sera from dromedary camels, which is an encouraging first indication of the potential of this candidate vaccine for dromedary camels. To provide further evidence for the potential use of Ad5.MERS-S1 as a vaccine in dromedary camels, we determined the susceptibility of dromedary camel cells to be infected by the human adenovirus serotype 5. Human or dromedary camel PBMC cells were transduced with recombinant adenovirus expressing EGFP and evaluated by flow cytometry analysis for EGFP expression. As shown in Fig. 6, both human as well as dromedary camel PBMCs were successfully infected with Ad5.EGFP. Moreover, a large percentage of the dromedary camel fibroblast cell line, Dubca, were infected by Ad5.

Finally, applications of this delivery mechanism to vaccines for other pathogens where CTL targeting is potentially relevant, such as hepatitis C [35], [36], [37] and [38], and influenza [39] and [40], should be investigated. We thank Darrell Irvine of the Ragon Institute for helping this website us review previous research in the area, Nicole Frahm of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center for immunochemistry advice, Dan Barouch of the Beth Israel Hospital for his interest and support, Niraj Patil for assistance with illustration preparation, Craig Rouskey for

helpful comments and Jonathan Carlson of Microsoft Research who helped review the manuscript. This work was supported in part by a Qualifying Therapeutic Drug Discovery Project Grant from the United States Government and a grant from Microsoft Research. Conflict of interest: RMR, CVH, and PML are employees of shareholders of Flow Pharma Inc., and DEH is an employee and shareholder of Microsoft. “
“All children worldwide should be fully vaccinated against polio, and every country should seek to achieve and maintain high levels of coverage with polio vaccine in support of the global commitment to eradicate polio.

WHO no longer recommends an OPV-only vaccination schedule. For all countries currently using OPV only, at least 1 dose of IPV should be added to the schedule. The primary purpose of the IPV dose is to maintain immunity against type 2 poliovirus during unless and after the planned global withdrawal CH5424802 order of OPV2 and switch from tOPV to bOPV. Depending on the timing of the IPV administration, the introduction of IPV may reduce VAPP risks. Adding an IPV dose will boost

both humoral and mucosal immunity against poliovirus types 1 and 3, which may also hasten the eradication of these WPVs. In polio-endemic countries and in countries at high risk for importation and subsequent spread [3], WHO recommends an OPV birth dose (a zero dose) followed by a primary series of 3 OPV and at least 1 IPV doses. The birth dose of OPV should be administered at birth, or as soon as possible after birth, to maximize the seroconversion rates with subsequent doses and to induce mucosal protection before enteric pathogens may interfere with the immune response. Also, administering the first dose of OPV while infants are still protected by maternally derived antibodies may, at least theoretically, prevent VAPP. Even in cases of perinatal HIV infection, early OPV vaccination seems to be well tolerated, and no additional risk of VAPP has been documented in such children. The primary series consisting of 3 OPV doses plus 1 IPV dose can be initiated from the age of 6 weeks with a minimum interval of 4 weeks between the OPV doses. If 1 dose of IPV is used, it should be given from 14 weeks of age (when maternal antibodies have diminished and immunogenicity is significantly higher) and can be co-administered with an OPV dose.

Infants

aged 42–98 days were in good health as determined by medical history and physical examination. Exclusion criteria included any previous vaccination, previous anaphylactic reaction to any vaccine component, contraindication to vaccination, any clinically significant chronic disease, history of culture-confirmed N. meningitidis or N. gonorrhea infection, receipt of blood products, or impaired immunity. Parents or legal guardians of participants gave written informed consent. Subjects were to be randomly assigned to receive 1 of 4 ascending doses of the bivalent rLP2086 vaccine with routine childhood vaccines or routine vaccines only. The recombinant bivalent rLP2086 vaccine was supplied as a liquid suspension in a prefilled ready-to-use syringe. Each 0.5-mL dose this website contains 10 μg, 30 μg, 60 μg, or 100 μg of purified rLP2086 proteins from each rLP2086 MnB subfamily: strain M98 250771 (variant A05; subfamily A) and strain CDC1573 (variant B01; subfamily B). Inactive ingredients include polysorbate 80 and 0.25 mg of Al3+ as AlPO4 in histidine buffer at pH 6.0 [10]. The DTaP-Hib-HBV + IPV vaccine and Prevenar® (Pfizer Inc, New York, NY, USA) were

given concomitantly as routine childhood vaccinations in the contralateral CX-5461 cell line thigh with a 23-gauge, 1-inch needle. One of the several meningococcal C (e.g., Meningitec®, Neis-Vac®, or Menjugate®) and rotavirus (RotaTeq® or Rotarix®) vaccines were administered according to the prescribing information at 2 and 4 months of age or 2, 4, and 6 months of age (RotaTeq® only). Subjects were also scheduled to receive the varicella

and the measles, mumps, and rubella vaccines; however, no subjects received these vaccinations due to early trial termination. Caregivers recorded solicited reactions 7 days postvaccination in an electronic diary. For erythema and swelling, the largest diameter was measured with a caliper and categorized as absent, mild (0.5–2.0 cm), moderate (2.5–7.0 cm), or severe (>7.0 cm). Tenderness was recorded as not discernible, present, or interfering with limb movement. For subjects who received bivalent rLP2086 vaccine, only reactions at the bivalent rLP2086 vaccine injection site were reported; reactions at the Prevenar® injection site were reported for found control subjects. Solicited systemic events included fever (absent [rectal temperature <38.0 °C], mild [38.0 °C to 39.0 °C], moderate [>39.0 °C to 40.0 °C], or severe [>40.0 °C]), irritability, increased/decreased sleep, decreased appetite, and use of antipyretic medication. Other AEs were considered unsolicited and collected throughout the study. AEs were assessed for seriousness and relationship to rLP2086. The study was terminated before the necessary samples were obtained. The safety analysis population included all subjects who received 1 dose of rLP2086. Safety data were summarized using descriptive statistics.

There is a natural desire to employ these new products to eliminate or eradicate the disease in question. Here we will examine this question for Neisseria meningitidis, the meningococcus, in the light of the vaccines currently being developed and deployed against this encapsulated bacterium [5]. As the most effective of these vaccines target the asymptomatic carriage and transmission of meningococci among individuals [6], Selleckchem Small molecule library the question of whether elimination or eradication can be achieved arises. Clearly, the best way to prevent an infectious disease is to stop the circulation of the causative agent and indeed drive it to extinction: if

the pathogen is not present it cannot cause pathology. In the case of the meningococcus, which is an GDC-0199 cell line important cause of septicaemia and meningitis world-wide [7], there are historical hints of a meningococcal disease-free world in that this very distinctive disease was not conclusively described before 1805 in Europe [8] and only towards the end of the 19th century in sub-Saharan Africa [9]. Is it possible to

return to this desirable state? If this course is to be considered, it is necessary to examine its feasibility and consequences in the light of the biology of this intriguing organism. The meningococcus is only known to inhabit the human nasopharynx, if one discounts its occasional Isotretinoin isolation from the human urogenital tract – the niche for its close relative the gonococcus [10]. It is asymptomatically carried in all human populations examined to date, albeit at variable prevalence [11] and [12]. Further, it has not been isolated

from other animals and no known animal reservoir exists [10]. Carriage, which is rare in infants, increases with age and is episodic: an individual will acquire a particular meningococcus, carry that meningococcus for a period of time, which may range from days to years, and then clear the infection – remaining susceptible to infection by another meningococcus [13] and [14]. It is not known why some episodes of carriage develop into disease, especially as this is unproductive for the bacterium as invasion of the bloodstream, CSF, and meninges cannot lead to onward transmission [15]. Meningococcal disease should regarded as a dysfunctional relationship which harms the host and, ultimately, also the bacterium [16]. Some of the answers to the paradox of a commensal causing disease in a way that does not promote its own spread may lie in the extremely high diversity of this bacterium [16]. N. meningitidis possesses multiple mechanisms for generating antigenic variants by altering the levels of expression of multiple genes [17] and [18]. Presumably this aids interaction with a wide variety of human receptors for the purposes of colonisation and for the evasion of immune responses [19].

These cellular mechanisms is influenced by many factors, including physical, chemical response, physiological stress and the action of p53 co-factors, p53 induces wide network of signals that act through two major apoptotic pathways.44 They are intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. The extrinsic apoptotic pathway (death receptor pathway) generates to activation of a caspase reaction by caspase regulators. The death receptors mechanism are involving various member of receptor gene family such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), Fas R and Apo 3L. That molecules are stimulate the activity of these pro-apoptotic proteins or activate these

receptors are currently their therapeutic prospective of cancer, including hematologic and hepatic malignancies. The signal transduction of the extrinsic death receptor pathway involves several caspases (family of cysteine proteases) which are specific to cellular CFTR modulator targets. Caspase is cascade mechanism, once activated caspases stimulates www.selleckchem.com/products/Staurosporine.html several cellular function as part of a process that called as programmed

cell death/death of the cells.45 The intrinsic pathway (mitochondrial) regulates the Bcl-2 family gene and BH evolutionary protein towards antiapoptotic mechanism, the formation of triggered by the cytochrome c from the mitochondrion. The impact of the apoptotic pathway may boost up the p53 target genes especially Bid, Bcl-5.The mainstream of the apoptotic mechanism are mediated to stimulate the specific target gene in cell suicide function.46 and 47 Conversely p53 can also stimulate apoptosis cell suicide function

by a post transcription mechanism in which certain physiological conditions are met. Also these tremendous functions of p53 constituents in apoptosis function may highly focused in cancer gene therapy.48 (Fig. 4). The cancer very and its mechanisms to induce the apoptotic cell function are vast studied. Hence different plant and secondary metabolites involved in the stimulate the cell suicide functions. Recently, the molecular drug development to cancer drug analog has facilitated and well designed for targeted site action in cancer therapies. The newly emerged development of the molecular characterization of cancer studies and evolution to makes it promising to develop more effective plant based drugs, and also technical supportive to monitoring the cancer cells pathway. The plant derived anticancer agents are mainly controlled the various cell mechanism in different stages of cancer such as: i) methyl transferase inhibitors The abundant results and ethnobotanical evidence suggests that plant and its compounds have beneficial effects against various cancers. Antineoplastic potential of phytochemicals that it is partially mediated through their ability to neutralize the body functions and also repair DNA damage, subsequent control the free radicals formation. There is now a great conscious in the developing of plant based drugs to against cancer and related diseases.

1A, upper right quadrant). Interestingly, there was considerable heterogeneity in CD11c staining within the Y-Ae+ population (Fig. 1B) with several different populations with different levels of Y-Ae staining or CD11c expression clearly evident. In this experiment, approximately 50% of CD11chigh cells from EαGFP-immunised mice were Y-Ae+ (Fig. 1B, upper panel, upper right quadrant), however, there were a smaller percentage (∼28%; ∼0.6% of live cells) with a Y-Ae+CD11clow/− phenotype (Fig. 1B, upper panel, upper left quadrant). At present we have not attempted to further characterise these Y-Ae+CD11clow/− cells. EαGFP Ag was demonstrated at both

the injection site (Fig. 1C) and in the local draining lymph nodes (Fig. 1D and E) 30 min after injection. EαGFP appeared to flow from one side of the lymph node, from the subcapsular sinus into the paracortical areas (Fig. 1E) as has been observed previously for other protein Ags, including EαRFP [1]. selleck inhibitor To maximise the sensitivity of Ag detection in lymphoid tissues, we used GFP-specific

rabbit IgG to amplify the GFP signal (Fig. 1F). At 24 h we observed that large areas of the draining lymph nodes were Y-Ae+ (Fig. 1G) as has been reported previously [1]. B cell follicular areas were not stained with Y-Ae, with the majority of Y-Ae+ cells being this website found in the interfollicular areas, paracortex and subcapsular sinus. As was observed by flow cytometry, Y-Ae staining co-localised with CD11c+ cells (Fig. 1H, yellow), however there were some Y-Ae+CD11clow/− cells (red). The maximum amount of Ag detected following DNA vaccination is known to be in the nanogram range in muscle and serum [10] and [16], however the amount of Ag that reaches lymphoid tissues is

unknown. Estimates are that fewer than 2% of all CD11c+ cells may contain plasmid-encoded Ag following transdermal gene gun delivery [17] and it is not known how many of these Edoxaban cells present Ag to naïve lymphocytes. Therefore we wished to establish sensitive methodologies to study those cells that acquire and present DNA-encoded Ag, particularly in lymphoid tissue. To determine the minimum amount of protein Ag that could be detected in vivo and how much Ag is needed to be able to detect cells displaying pMHC complexes, we administered a range of doses of EαGFP protein and examined the draining lymph nodes for cell-associated Ag and cells displaying pMHC complexes. The aim of this protein injection study was to demonstrate the sensitivity of the assay systems in a widely studied situation such as subcutaneous injection. Both Ag distribution and the proportion of GFP+ cells were influenced by Ag dose (Fig. 2A and B). GFP+ cells were detected in the CLNs (Fig. 2A and B), BLNs and ILNs (data not shown), 24 h after injection of 100 μg Ag (n = 3, p < 0.05). However, lower Ag doses yielded far fewer GFP+ within both the CD11c+ ( Fig. 2A) and CD11clow/− ( Fig. 2B) populations.